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SFN is an effective dietary isothiocyanate, which found in cruciferous plants like Brussels sprouts and broccoli. SFN has anti-genotoxicity, anti-cancer and antioxidant activity as well as chemotherapeutic effect [79,80,81]. Besides enhancing cellular capacity in defense against oxidants, and electrophiles, it has been shown that sulforaphane is able to provoke apoptosis and reduce angiogenesis and cell cycle progression [82,83,84]. Interesting preclinical investigations show that sulforaphane prevents mice from forming carcinogen-mediated mammary carcinogenesis, lung, and gastric cancer, as well as colonic crypt foci [7, 85]. Previously, SFN was recognized as the most powerful activator of NQO1, but later it has been proved that the upregulation of NQO1 by SFN, indeed is regulated by the Nrf2-Keap1 signaling [86]. According to the in vivo experiments, site-directed mutagenesis and mass spectrometry analysis, it was evidenced that SFN can directly modify critical Keap1 cysteine 151 which followed by activation of the Nrf2-Keap1-ARE signaling [87, 88]. Thiols from Keap1 Kelch domain and isothiocyanate from SFN are covalently bound together which lead to the releasing of Nrf2 from Keap1 and finally inducing phase II metabolic enzymes [89, 90]. In another study, Kobayashi et al. categorized SFN as class 1 ARE inducers. Moreover, they found that the induction of ARE-regulated genes in zebrafish via sulforaphane is highly dependent on keap1 Cys151 [88]. It has been shown that SFN has a protective role against cancer development in different kinds of transgenic and carcinogen-induced tumor models (reviewed [91, 92]). In an animal study, Kalpana et al. revealed the inhibitory effect of SFN on benzo(a)pyrene (B(a)P)-induced lung cancer in the mouse, with emphasis on the effect of SFN on Nrf2 signal pathway [93]. Besides, in some clinical trial studies, the effect of SFN, as an Nrf2 activator, was evaluated in patients with colon, prostate, breast, and pancreatic cancers [79,80,81,82]. SFN can concomitantly upregulate Nrf2 and its downstream target genes, including HO1, NQOs, GSTs, and UGTs, rapidly in less than 30 min [94]. Another study demonstrated that sulforaphane epigenetically restored Nrf2 mRNA expression through the demethylation of its promoter CpGs in TRAMP-C1 and JB6 cells [95, 96].
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Angiotensin II is a peptide hormone that regulates vasomotor tone and blood pressure and can enhance contractility [111]. Circulating levels of angiotensin II increase throughout fetal development and peak shortly after birth [112, 113]. Autoantibodies to angiotensin type 1 receptor (AT1R) during fetal development have decreased cardiac function with unorganized myofibrils and increased expression of proteins involved in glycolysis [114]. Crosstalk between the renin-angiotensin system and AMPK [115] may link angiotensin II to metabolic transitions occurring during cardiomyocyte development. Angiotensin II acts via the AT1R to promote differentiation of mouse ESC-CMs via c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) and activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway leading to upregulation of sarcomere proteins and cardiomyocyte hypertrophy [116, 117]. Angiotensin II upregulates glucose uptake and mTOR signaling while downregulating AMPK activation leading to cardiac hypertrophy, while use of an AMPK activator increases fatty acid uptake and prevents cardiomyocyte hypertrophy [118]. These findings suggest that angiotensin II regulates early cardiomyocyte development through upregulation of sarcomere proteins but may have detrimental effects later by interruption of fatty acid metabolism. 041b061a72